Family
Unlike many cultures, African American culture does not maintain familial norms that emphasize the nuclear family as the typical family configuration. The structure of African American families has many variations and is often multigenerational. This is a cultural characteristic that was developed out of necessity during hundreds of years of oppression. Two-generational families consist of nuclear families and one-parent families in the household, mother and/or father and their children. Three-generational families, or extended families, consist of grandparents, their children, and their grandchildren within the household. Extended family may also include kinsmen and kinswomen, which generally refers to family members who do not share a common bloodline with the family but are viewed and accepted as family members nonetheless. Family, in all of its forms, is highly valued in the African American community.
Without making proper considerations, many other cultures view the variable structures of African American families as dysfunctional or disorganized. On the contrary, the organization of African American families is rather functional and effectively creates and maintains strong intergenerational familial bonds. In a three-generational household, the eldest generation may be in need of some level of care or supervision, which their children would prefer to provide as opposed to other options such as nursing homes or outside caregivers. The grandchildren too, may be in need of a caregiver while the parents work, and this caregiver is often one of the grandparents or another family member within the household. Everyone in the household plays a role designed to strengthen and benefit the family. A common misconception is that since the nuclear family is the American norm, and African American norms deviate from this consensus, this is a result of black fathers failing to provide support for their children. This is a myth concocted by cultures that did not endure the constraints of American slavery for hundreds of years. Most black men provide support and participate in their children’s lives regardless of family structure. There are exceptions of course, but the same can be said for Latin Americans, European Americans, and other American populations as well. There is one difference, however, while family is highly valued in most cultural American populations, the nuclear family is not necessarily emphasized as normative in African American culture.
During slavery, it was common for black families to be broken up and sold to different buyers. This was sometimes done for practical purposes, but more often it was practiced to break the wills of slaves and strip them of any personal identity. It was not however effective. Cultivating kinship, which was a practice that originated in Africa, became common among slaves who worked the same plantations together. Families consisting of kinsmen and kinswomen were constructed within the boundaries of the plantation. This practice is still prevalent in African American culture.
Many slave owners began to encourage unities referred to as “jumping the broom” among slaves. Slaves, who were considered subhuman by slave owners, were not in a position to enter in to contracts. Marriage is a contract so it was impossible for slaves to enter into a contractual union such as marriage. Jumping the broom, another tradition with roots in Africa, became the symbolic manner in which slaves entered into unions similar to marriage. The act of jumping the broom is still incorporated into some African American weddings. Though it was not legally recognized, jumping the broom was believed to be divinely recognized and therefore binding to those who entered into it. Slave owners who encouraged this often did so not out of empathetic reasons but because it was believed that having a family to care for and protect would decrease the chances that slaves would try to run, depriving the slave owner of valuable property. Often times, the father would be sent to work on another plantation, while the mother and children remained together at the original plantation. The father would sometimes be permitted to walk, on some occasions long distances, to the original plantation once or twice a week to spend time with his wife and children. Female slaves were expected to return to the fields shortly after giving birth. These women were the original working mothers of the United States. Their days were filled with hard manual labor in the fields interlaced with rushed retreats to their quarters to nurse their infants. Often times, slave owners appointed what we now refer to as wet nurses, to feed and care for all of the infants on the plantation so new mothers would not decrease productivity. With mothers working the fields and fathers often placed on different plantations other members of the family, older children or elders, contributed to the care of the younger children on the plantation. The support provided by extended family was a necessity in African American culture as a matter of practicality during slavery and it remains an intricate part of African American culture today.
Many slave owners began to encourage unities referred to as “jumping the broom” among slaves. Slaves, who were considered subhuman by slave owners, were not in a position to enter in to contracts. Marriage is a contract so it was impossible for slaves to enter into a contractual union such as marriage. Jumping the broom, another tradition with roots in Africa, became the symbolic manner in which slaves entered into unions similar to marriage. The act of jumping the broom is still incorporated into some African American weddings. Though it was not legally recognized, jumping the broom was believed to be divinely recognized and therefore binding to those who entered into it. Slave owners who encouraged this often did so not out of empathetic reasons but because it was believed that having a family to care for and protect would decrease the chances that slaves would try to run, depriving the slave owner of valuable property. Often times, the father would be sent to work on another plantation, while the mother and children remained together at the original plantation. The father would sometimes be permitted to walk, on some occasions long distances, to the original plantation once or twice a week to spend time with his wife and children. Female slaves were expected to return to the fields shortly after giving birth. These women were the original working mothers of the United States. Their days were filled with hard manual labor in the fields interlaced with rushed retreats to their quarters to nurse their infants. Often times, slave owners appointed what we now refer to as wet nurses, to feed and care for all of the infants on the plantation so new mothers would not decrease productivity. With mothers working the fields and fathers often placed on different plantations other members of the family, older children or elders, contributed to the care of the younger children on the plantation. The support provided by extended family was a necessity in African American culture as a matter of practicality during slavery and it remains an intricate part of African American culture today.
Rituals
Freed from the chains of slavery but not entirely freed from the chains of oppression, African Americans maintain a sense of cultural identity through various rituals. Rituals serve to promote ethnic awareness, preserve cultural continuity, and strengthen racial identity within the African American community. Family rituals such as homegoing celebrations and family reunions originated during slavery and still effectively function as transmitters of cultural values. According to Julie E. Miller-Cribbs, in an article entitled “African American Family Reunion: Directions for Future Research and Practice”, there are five functions of rituals in African American life:
~ Shared family identity and values
~ Intergenerational communication
~ Stability, organization, and continuity
~ Expression of cultural traditions
~ Coping with oppression
Freed from the chains of slavery but not entirely freed from the chains of oppression, African Americans maintain a sense of cultural identity through various rituals. Rituals serve to promote ethnic awareness, preserve cultural continuity, and strengthen racial identity within the African American community. Family rituals such as homegoing celebrations and family reunions originated during slavery and still effectively function as transmitters of cultural values. According to Julie E. Miller-Cribbs, in an article entitled “African American Family Reunion: Directions for Future Research and Practice”, there are five functions of rituals in African American life:
~ Shared family identity and values
~ Intergenerational communication
~ Stability, organization, and continuity
~ Expression of cultural traditions
~ Coping with oppression
Homegoings
During slavery, congregation among slaves was forbidden because slave owners feared slave revolts. Upon the death of a slave, he or she was quietly buried in an unmarked grave in an inconspicuous area of the plantation with no ceremony whatsoever. While the bereaved silently grieved, outward displays to acknowledge and honor the life and death of the departed were strictly prohibited. One of the ways in which slave owners approached their fear of slave revolution was to introduce Christianity to slaves. They did this not out of concern for the salvation of the souls of slaves, but rather to instill a fear of God into them to promote obedience. This purposeful conversion of slaves to Christianity was overwhelmingly successful, perhaps much more successful than it was intended to be. Slaves identified with the enslaved people of the Old Testament and placed faith in a figure that would someday lead them out of slavery as Moses did in the Bible. Eventually, laws were changed that allowed slaves to assemble for religious services and funerals.
Slave funerals were markedly different from the somber funerals of white Americans. Slave funerals, which were referred to as “homegoings” were celebratory occasions. Jubilant singing and dancing among the mourners was a customary way of celebrating the life of the deceased. This was a way to honor in death someone who had not been honored in life. Death was considered liberation from the inhumane conditions in which slaves lived and toiled and the vehicle by which the soul was returned to the motherland; hence the term homegoing. Although grief was undoubtedly part of homegoings, celebrating the newfound freedom of the departed was the primary point of focus. African American funerals still value and maintain the celebratory nature of homegoings, although now the term generally implies returning to the Kingdom of God.
During slavery, congregation among slaves was forbidden because slave owners feared slave revolts. Upon the death of a slave, he or she was quietly buried in an unmarked grave in an inconspicuous area of the plantation with no ceremony whatsoever. While the bereaved silently grieved, outward displays to acknowledge and honor the life and death of the departed were strictly prohibited. One of the ways in which slave owners approached their fear of slave revolution was to introduce Christianity to slaves. They did this not out of concern for the salvation of the souls of slaves, but rather to instill a fear of God into them to promote obedience. This purposeful conversion of slaves to Christianity was overwhelmingly successful, perhaps much more successful than it was intended to be. Slaves identified with the enslaved people of the Old Testament and placed faith in a figure that would someday lead them out of slavery as Moses did in the Bible. Eventually, laws were changed that allowed slaves to assemble for religious services and funerals.
Slave funerals were markedly different from the somber funerals of white Americans. Slave funerals, which were referred to as “homegoings” were celebratory occasions. Jubilant singing and dancing among the mourners was a customary way of celebrating the life of the deceased. This was a way to honor in death someone who had not been honored in life. Death was considered liberation from the inhumane conditions in which slaves lived and toiled and the vehicle by which the soul was returned to the motherland; hence the term homegoing. Although grief was undoubtedly part of homegoings, celebrating the newfound freedom of the departed was the primary point of focus. African American funerals still value and maintain the celebratory nature of homegoings, although now the term generally implies returning to the Kingdom of God.
Family Reunions
Despite avid attempts by slave owners to demoralize and weaken slaves by depriving them of familial bonds, the strength of these bonds has managed to endure for hundreds of years. Family has continued to serve as the foundation of African American culture and a transmitter of values since slavery. This foundation has weathered slavery, segregation, the civil rights movement, and is still functional today. After slavery was abolished, it was not uncommon for former slaves to seek out family members and kinsmen from whom they had been separated during and after their enslavement. This practice became the precursor to the modern day family reunion. Today, African American family reunions can be fantastically large affairs with hundreds of family members in attendance, coming from all over the country and even abroad. According to Julie E. Miller-Cribbs, the African American family reunion has a variety of functions that include:
~ Preservation and revival of extended families and the functions of extended families
~ Reconnection
~ Reduction of isolation
~ Ritual of solidarity that maintains family unity
~ Transmission of identity and values
~ Links between the past and present
~ Celebration and recognition of accomplishments of family members
~ Focus on addressing social problems
~ Survival, coping with racism and oppression
~ Empowerment
~ Emphasis on younger generations
~ Provision of role models
The family reunion provides a sense of acceptance, belonging, and unity among family members, which is invaluable in strengthening racial identity. It also provides a forum that is ideal for the family elders to bestow their experiences and wisdom upon younger generations to ensure the continuity of family history and values. Expressions of cultural traditions, such as singing songs, dancing, and eating certain foods, are important sources of ethnic awareness within families in the African American community. A relatively new function of the family reunion is to inquire about and address health issues that may genetically effect future generations. This long-standing tradition is a means by which heritage is acknowledged, honored, and maintained among families.
Despite avid attempts by slave owners to demoralize and weaken slaves by depriving them of familial bonds, the strength of these bonds has managed to endure for hundreds of years. Family has continued to serve as the foundation of African American culture and a transmitter of values since slavery. This foundation has weathered slavery, segregation, the civil rights movement, and is still functional today. After slavery was abolished, it was not uncommon for former slaves to seek out family members and kinsmen from whom they had been separated during and after their enslavement. This practice became the precursor to the modern day family reunion. Today, African American family reunions can be fantastically large affairs with hundreds of family members in attendance, coming from all over the country and even abroad. According to Julie E. Miller-Cribbs, the African American family reunion has a variety of functions that include:
~ Preservation and revival of extended families and the functions of extended families
~ Reconnection
~ Reduction of isolation
~ Ritual of solidarity that maintains family unity
~ Transmission of identity and values
~ Links between the past and present
~ Celebration and recognition of accomplishments of family members
~ Focus on addressing social problems
~ Survival, coping with racism and oppression
~ Empowerment
~ Emphasis on younger generations
~ Provision of role models
The family reunion provides a sense of acceptance, belonging, and unity among family members, which is invaluable in strengthening racial identity. It also provides a forum that is ideal for the family elders to bestow their experiences and wisdom upon younger generations to ensure the continuity of family history and values. Expressions of cultural traditions, such as singing songs, dancing, and eating certain foods, are important sources of ethnic awareness within families in the African American community. A relatively new function of the family reunion is to inquire about and address health issues that may genetically effect future generations. This long-standing tradition is a means by which heritage is acknowledged, honored, and maintained among families.
Religion and Spirituality
Spirituality was among one of the very few sources of comfort and solace for slaves in America. Africans that survived the treacherous conditions of slave ships often brought with them to America, their own spiritual beliefs and ideologies. These ideologies included many African spiritual beliefs, although these beliefs varied according to region of origin. It has also been reported that some, but not many, Africans brought with them Christian and Islamic beliefs. Despite mass conversions to Christianity by slaves, many practiced syncretism, blending Christian influences with African rites and beliefs. Call and response patterns of singing, spiritual possession, shouting, and dancing are all characteristics associated with African rites and beliefs but were incorporated into Christian worship by slaves. Many of these African influences are still recognizable today.
Despite opposition from many whites, some slave owners began to introduce Christian beliefs to their slaves, and in some cases allowed them to learn to read the Bible. The story of the Old Testament that describes the enslavement of the Jews resonated with American slaves. This new religious ideology provided them with some level of hope in an otherwise hopeless existence. The idea that one day they would be divinely released from enslavement and their souls redeemed provided them with a light at the end of the tunnel.
The freedom to practice this new religion varied however. Some slaves were allowed to assemble for religious services unopposed, but others were limited to services that were supervised, in some capacity, by whites. Many slave owners believed unsupervised sermons would give slaves the opportunity to organize and carry out revolts. Although some slave churches did convey coded messages during sermons, and there were a few slave revolts that were said to have gained momentum under the guise of worship, most slaves embraced Christianity as a coping mechanism against oppression. They used faith to help them understand and make sense of the atrocities that they suffered. As oppression has remained a part of African American life, so has religious faith.
Most slaves converted to Christianity, but denomination depended largely on region. Today, while Christianity still dominates the religious spectrum, many African Americans subscribe to many different denominations outside of Christianity. One fact remains though; African Americans still highly value religion and spirituality.
"According to the U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, conducted in 2007 by the Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life, Black Americans “are markedly more religious on a variety of measures than the U.S. population as a whole.” It cited that 87% of Blacks (vs. 83% of all Americans) are affiliated with a religion. It also found that 79 % of Blacks (vs. 56% overall) say that religion is “very important in their life”. "
Why are African Americans markedly more religious on a variety of measures than the U.S. population as a whole? There is no one simple explanation for this question. During slavery, religion was one of the only sources of hope and redemption for African Americans. Additionally, it was one of the first mechanisms that allowed for the provisions of social support and a sense of belonging and cultural identity in an environment that was designed to deprive slaves of those basic human needs. Today, with many African Americans still facing oppression and discrimination, they still turn to religious institutions to fulfill such needs. Despite the implementation of various social services that were designed to help people in need, including African Americans, many of these services remain inaccessible to those who need them most. Furthermore, consistent oppression by the majority population has caused African Americans to be highly distrustful of their oppressors and calls into question the effectiveness and reliability of the kinds of help they will receive from white America.
The ministers in African American religious institutions however, have experienced the same cultural oppression, racial discrimination, and disparities as its congregants. Therefore, they are far more likely to be trusted by their African American members to recognize, understand, and provide similar services to those in need. In addition to providing spiritual guidance, religious institutions are a source of strength, social support, racial identity and ethnic awareness for its parishioners.
Spirituality was among one of the very few sources of comfort and solace for slaves in America. Africans that survived the treacherous conditions of slave ships often brought with them to America, their own spiritual beliefs and ideologies. These ideologies included many African spiritual beliefs, although these beliefs varied according to region of origin. It has also been reported that some, but not many, Africans brought with them Christian and Islamic beliefs. Despite mass conversions to Christianity by slaves, many practiced syncretism, blending Christian influences with African rites and beliefs. Call and response patterns of singing, spiritual possession, shouting, and dancing are all characteristics associated with African rites and beliefs but were incorporated into Christian worship by slaves. Many of these African influences are still recognizable today.
Despite opposition from many whites, some slave owners began to introduce Christian beliefs to their slaves, and in some cases allowed them to learn to read the Bible. The story of the Old Testament that describes the enslavement of the Jews resonated with American slaves. This new religious ideology provided them with some level of hope in an otherwise hopeless existence. The idea that one day they would be divinely released from enslavement and their souls redeemed provided them with a light at the end of the tunnel.
The freedom to practice this new religion varied however. Some slaves were allowed to assemble for religious services unopposed, but others were limited to services that were supervised, in some capacity, by whites. Many slave owners believed unsupervised sermons would give slaves the opportunity to organize and carry out revolts. Although some slave churches did convey coded messages during sermons, and there were a few slave revolts that were said to have gained momentum under the guise of worship, most slaves embraced Christianity as a coping mechanism against oppression. They used faith to help them understand and make sense of the atrocities that they suffered. As oppression has remained a part of African American life, so has religious faith.
Most slaves converted to Christianity, but denomination depended largely on region. Today, while Christianity still dominates the religious spectrum, many African Americans subscribe to many different denominations outside of Christianity. One fact remains though; African Americans still highly value religion and spirituality.
"According to the U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, conducted in 2007 by the Pew Research Center’s Forum on Religion & Public Life, Black Americans “are markedly more religious on a variety of measures than the U.S. population as a whole.” It cited that 87% of Blacks (vs. 83% of all Americans) are affiliated with a religion. It also found that 79 % of Blacks (vs. 56% overall) say that religion is “very important in their life”. "
Why are African Americans markedly more religious on a variety of measures than the U.S. population as a whole? There is no one simple explanation for this question. During slavery, religion was one of the only sources of hope and redemption for African Americans. Additionally, it was one of the first mechanisms that allowed for the provisions of social support and a sense of belonging and cultural identity in an environment that was designed to deprive slaves of those basic human needs. Today, with many African Americans still facing oppression and discrimination, they still turn to religious institutions to fulfill such needs. Despite the implementation of various social services that were designed to help people in need, including African Americans, many of these services remain inaccessible to those who need them most. Furthermore, consistent oppression by the majority population has caused African Americans to be highly distrustful of their oppressors and calls into question the effectiveness and reliability of the kinds of help they will receive from white America.
The ministers in African American religious institutions however, have experienced the same cultural oppression, racial discrimination, and disparities as its congregants. Therefore, they are far more likely to be trusted by their African American members to recognize, understand, and provide similar services to those in need. In addition to providing spiritual guidance, religious institutions are a source of strength, social support, racial identity and ethnic awareness for its parishioners.
References
Black Church: African American Religious Affiliation. (n.d.). Retrieved December 8, 2015, from http://www.amaremet.com/the-black-church-african-american-religious-affiliation/
Homegoings. (n.d.). Retrieved December 8, 2015, from http://www.pbs.org/pov/homegoings/discussions-about-death.php
"Jumping The Broom," a short history. (2015). Retrieved December 8, 2015, from http://www.aaregistry.org/historic_events/view/jumping-broom-short-history
Marsden, S. (2013). Homegoing Funerals: An African-American Funeral Tradition. Retrieved December 8, 2015, from http://www.us-funerals.com/funeral-articles/homegoing-funerals.html#.Vmd0P8qGWDp
Miller, L. (2012). Colored Spirituality: The centrality of Spirit Among Ethnic Minorities. In The Oxford handbook of psychology and spirituality (p. 199). New York: Oxford University Press.
Miller-Cribbs, J. (2002). African American Family Reunions: Directions for Future Research and Practice. Retrieved December 8, 2015, from http://www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu/prba/perspectives/springsummer2004/miller.pdf
Saunders, J. (n.d.). African American Funeral Traditions | The Classroom | Synonym. Retrieved December 9, 2015, from http://classroom.synonym.com/african-american-funeral-traditions-5461.html
Taylor, R., & Chatters, L. (2004). African American Religious Participation. In Religion in the lives of African Americans social, psychological, and health perspectives. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Williams, H. (n.d.). How Slavery Affected African American Families, Freedom's Story, TeacherServe®, National Humanities Center. Retrieved December 8, 2015, from http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/freedom/1609-1865/essays/aafamilies.htm
Black Church: African American Religious Affiliation. (n.d.). Retrieved December 8, 2015, from http://www.amaremet.com/the-black-church-african-american-religious-affiliation/
Homegoings. (n.d.). Retrieved December 8, 2015, from http://www.pbs.org/pov/homegoings/discussions-about-death.php
"Jumping The Broom," a short history. (2015). Retrieved December 8, 2015, from http://www.aaregistry.org/historic_events/view/jumping-broom-short-history
Marsden, S. (2013). Homegoing Funerals: An African-American Funeral Tradition. Retrieved December 8, 2015, from http://www.us-funerals.com/funeral-articles/homegoing-funerals.html#.Vmd0P8qGWDp
Miller, L. (2012). Colored Spirituality: The centrality of Spirit Among Ethnic Minorities. In The Oxford handbook of psychology and spirituality (p. 199). New York: Oxford University Press.
Miller-Cribbs, J. (2002). African American Family Reunions: Directions for Future Research and Practice. Retrieved December 8, 2015, from http://www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu/prba/perspectives/springsummer2004/miller.pdf
Saunders, J. (n.d.). African American Funeral Traditions | The Classroom | Synonym. Retrieved December 9, 2015, from http://classroom.synonym.com/african-american-funeral-traditions-5461.html
Taylor, R., & Chatters, L. (2004). African American Religious Participation. In Religion in the lives of African Americans social, psychological, and health perspectives. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Williams, H. (n.d.). How Slavery Affected African American Families, Freedom's Story, TeacherServe®, National Humanities Center. Retrieved December 8, 2015, from http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/freedom/1609-1865/essays/aafamilies.htm